Music
Music is an art form consisting of sound and silence expressed through time.
Elements of sound as used in music are pitch (including melody and harmony),
rhythm (including tempo and meter), and sonic qualities of timbre,
articulation, dynamics, and texture.
The use of music, in its creation, performance, significance and even its
definition, varies according to culture and social context. Music ranges
from strictly organized compositions and performances to improvisational or
aleatoric forms. For purposes of discussion and exploration of the topic,
music is divided into genres and sub-genres, although the dividing lines and
relationships between music genres are often unclear and/or controversial.
Within "the arts", music can be classified as a performing art, a fine art,
or an auditory art form.
Music may also involve generative forms in time through the construction of
patterns and combinations of natural stimuli, principally sound. Music may
be used for artistic or aesthetic, communicative, entertainment, ceremonial
or religious purposes and by many composers purely as an academic instrument
for study.
History of Western Music
The history of music predates the written word and is tied to the
development of each unique human culture. The development of music among
humans occurred against the backdrop of natural sounds such as birdsong and
the sounds other animals use to communicate. Prehistoric music, once more
commonly called primitive music, is the name given to all music produced in
preliterate cultures (prehistory), beginning somewhere in very late
geological history.
Ancient music
The earliest records of musical expression are to be found in the Sama Veda
of India and in 4,000 year old cuneiform from Ur. Instruments, such as the
seven holed flute and various types of stringed instruments have been
recovered from the Indus valley civilization archaeological sites.[1] The
Indian music is one of the oldest musical traditions in the world, and
Indian classical music (marga) can be found from the scriptures of the Hindu
tradition, the Vedas. Chinese classical music, the traditional art or court
music of China has a history stretching for more than three thousand years.
Music was an important part of cultural and social life in Ancient Greece.
In ancient Greece, mixed-gender choruses performed for entertainment,
celebration and spiritual ceremonies, and musicians and singers had an
important role in Greek theater. Music was part of children's basic
education in ancient Greece.
Medieval and Renaissance music
While musical life was undoubtedly rich in the early Medieval era, as
attested by artistic depictions of instruments, writings about music, and
other records, the only repertory of music which has survived from before
800 to the present day is the plainsong liturgical music of the Roman
Catholic Church, the largest part of which is called Gregorian chant.
Several schools of polyphony flourished in the period after 1100. Alongside
these schools of sacred music a vibrant tradition of secular song developed,
as exemplified in the music of the troubadours, trouvères and Minnesänger.
Much of the surviving music of the 14th century in European music history is
secular. By the middle of the 15th century, composers and singers used a
smooth polyphony for sacred musical compositions such as the mass, the
motet, and the laude; and secular forms such as the chanson and the
madrigal. The invention of printing had an immense influence on the
dissemination of musical styles.
Baroque music
The first operas, written around 1600 and the rise of Counterpoint musical
compositions define the end of the Renaissance and the beginning of the
Baroque era that lasted until 1750, the year of the death of J.S. Bach,
today the most generally known of the Baroque composers (though many
composers embraced the Baroque movement in music during those years).
German Baroque composers wrote for small ensembles including strings, brass,
and woodwinds, as well as Choirs, pipe organ, harpsichord, and clavichord.
During the Baroque period, several major music forms were defined that
lasted into later periods when they were expanded and evolved further,
including the Fugue, the Invention, the Sonata, and the Concerto.[2]
Classical music
The music of the Classical period is characterised by homophonic texture,
often featuring prominent melody with accompaniment. These new melodies
tended to be almost voice-like and singable. The now popular instrumental
music was dominated by further evolution of musical forms initially defined
in the Baroque period: the sonata, and the concerto, with the addition of
the new form, the symphony. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, well known even today,
is among the central figures of the Classical period.
Romantic music
Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert were transitional composers, leading
into the Romantic period, with their expansion of existing genres, forms,
and functions of music. In the Romantic period, music became more expressive
and emotional, expanding to encompass literature, art, and philosophy. The
late 19th century saw a dramatic expansion in the size of the orchestra, and
in the role of concerts as part of urban society. Later Romantic composers
created complex and often much longer musical works, merging and expanding
traditional forms that had previously been used separately. For example,
counterpoint, combined with harmonic structures to create more extended
chords with increased use of dissonance and to create dramatic tension and
resolution.
Impressionist music
The impressionist movement in music is a movement in European classical
music that had its beginnings in the late nineteenth century and continued
into the middle of the twentieth century. Musical Impressionism focused on
suggestion and atmosphere rather than strong emotion or the depiction of a
story. Impressionist composers favored short forms such as the nocturne,
arabesque, and prelude, and the use of unresolved dissonance and uncommon
scales such as the whole tone scale. Musical Impressionism was based in
France, and the French composers Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel are
generally considered to be two of the most well-known Impressionists.
20th Century music
The 20th Century saw a revolution in music listening as the radio gained
popularity worldwide and new media and technologies were developed to
record, capture, reproduce and distribute music. 20th Century music brought
a new freedom and wide experimentation with new musical styles and forms
that challenged the accepted rules of music of earlier periods, including
both new popular forms as well as evolution of new classical forms such as
Twelve-tone technique.
Production
Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic
pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product
for the marketplace. Amateur musicians compose and perform music for their
own pleasure, and they do not attempt to derive their income from music.
Professional musicians are employed by a range of institutions and
organisations, including armed forces, churches and synagogues, symphony
orchestras, broadcasting or film production companies, and music schools. As
well, professional musicians work as freelancers, seeking contracts and
engagements in a variety of settings.
Although amateur musicians differ from professional musicians in that
amateur musicians have a non-musical source of income, there are often many
links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur
musicians take lessons with professional musicians. In community settings,
advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety
of ensembles and orchestras. In some rare cases, amateur musicians attain a
professional level of competence, and they are able to perform in
professional performance settings.
A distinction is often made between music performed for the benefit of a
live audience and music that is performed for the purpose of being recorded
and distributed through the music retail system or the broadcasting system.
However, there are also many cases where a live performance in front of an
audience is recorded and distributed (or broadcast).
Performance
Performance is the execution of music. While music cannot technically exist
without performance, we generally think of performance as being the
exhibition of a musical work before an audience. A musical work is performed
once its structure and instrumentation are satisfactory to its creators;
however, as it gets performed more and more over time, it can evolve and
change in any number of ways.
A performance can either be rehearsed or improvised. Improvisation is a
musical idea created on the spot, with no prior premeditation, while
rehearsal is vigorous repetition of an idea until it has achieved cohesion.
Musicians will generally add improvisation to a well-rehearsed idea to
create a unique performance.
Many cultures include strong traditions of solo and performance, such as in
Indian classical music, and in the Western Art music tradition. Other
cultures, such as in Bali, include strong traditions of group performance.
All cultures include a mixture of both, and performance may range from
improvised solo playing for one's enjoyment to highly planned and organised
performance rituals such as the modern classical concert, religious
processions, music festivals or music competitions.
Chamber music, which is music for a small ensemble with only a few of each
type of instrument, is often seen as more intimate than symphonic works. A
performer may be referred to as a musician.
Aural tradition
Many types of music, such as traditional blues and folk were originally
preserved in the memory of performers, and the songs were handed down
orally, or aurally ("by ear"). When the composer of music is no longer
known, this music is often classified as "traditional". Different musical
traditions have different attitudes towards how and where to make changes to
the original source material, from quite strict, to those which demand
improvisation or modification to the music. History is also passed by ear
through song- for example in African societies.
Ornamentation
The detail included explicitly in the music notation varies between genres
and historical periods. In general, art music notation from the 17th through
to the 19th century required performers to have a great deal of contextual
knowledge about performing styles.
For example, in the 17th and 18th century, music notated for solo performers
typically indicated a simple, unornamented melody. However, it was expected
that performers would know how to add stylistically-appropriate ornaments
such as trills and turns. In the 19th century, art music for solo performers
may give a general instruction such as to perform the music expressively,
without describing in detail how the performer should do this. It was
expected that the performer would know how to use tempo changes,
accentuation, and pauses (among other devices) to obtain this "expressive"
performance style. In the 20th century, art music notation often became more
explicit, and used a range of markings and annotations to indicate to
performers how they should play or sing the piece.
In popular music and jazz, music notation almost always indicates only the
basic framework of the melody, harmony, or performance approach; musicians
and singers are expected to know the performance conventions and styles
associated with specific genres and pieces. For example, the "lead sheet"
for a jazz tune may only indicate the melody and the chord changes. The
performers in the jazz ensemble are expected to know how to "flesh out" this
basic structure by adding ornaments, improvised music, and chordal
accompaniment.
Composition
Composition is the act of creating music, either on paper or in sound. Most
cultures use at least part of the concept of preconceiving musical material,
or composition, as held in western classical music. Even when music is
notated precisely, there are still many decisions that a performer has to
make. The process of a performer deciding how to perform music that has been
previously composed and notated is termed interpretation.
Different performers' interpretations of the same music can vary widely.
Composers and song writers who present their own music are interpreting,
just as much as those who perform the music of others or folk music. The
standard body of choices and techniques present at a given time and a given
place is referred to as performance practice, where as interpretation is
generally used to mean either individual choices of a performer, or an
aspect of music which is not clear, and therefore has a "standard"
interpretation.
In some musical genres, such as jazz and blues, even more freedom is given
to the performer to engage in improvisation on a basic melodic, harmonic, or
rhythmic framework. The greatest latitude is given to the performer in a
style of performing called free improvisation, which is material that is
spontaneously "thought of" (imagined) while being performed, not
preconceived. According to the analysis of Georgiana Costescu, improvised
music usually follows stylistic or genre conventions and even "fully
composed" includes some freely chosen material (see precompositional).
Composition does not always mean the use of notation, or the known sole
authorship of one individual.
Music can also be determined by describing a "process" which may create
musical sounds, examples of this range from wind chimes, through computer
programs which select sounds. Music which contains elements selected by
chance is called Aleatoric music, and is often associated with John Cage,
Witold Lutosławski, and Steve Reich.
Musical composition is a term that describes the composition of a piece of
music. Methods of composition vary widely from one composer to another,
however in analysing music all forms -- spontaneous, trained, or untrained
-- are built from elements comprising a musical piece. Music can be composed
for repeated performance or it can be improvised; composed on the spot. The
music can be performed entirely from memory, from a written system of
musical notation, or some combination of both. Study of composition has
traditionally been dominated by examination of methods and practice of
Western classical music, but the definition of composition is broad enough
to include spontaneously improvised works like those of free jazz performers
and African drummers.
What is important in understanding the composition of a piece is singling
out its elements. An understanding of music's formal elements can be helpful
in deciphering exactly how a piece is constructed. A universal element of
music is how sounds occur in time, which is referred to as the rhythm of a
piece of music.
When a piece appears to have a changing time-feel, it is considered to be in
rubato time, an Italian expression that indicates that the tempo of the
piece changes to suit the expressive intent of the performer. Even random
placement of random sounds, which occurs in musical montage, occurs within
some kind of time, and thus employs time as a musical element.
Notation
Notation is the written expression of music notes and rhythms on paper using
symbols. When music is written down, the pitches and rhythm of the music is
notated, along with instructions on how to perform the music. This is
referred to as musical notation, and the study of how to read notation
involves music theory, harmony, the study of performance practice, and in
some cases an understanding of historical performance methods.
Written notation varies with style and period of music. In Western Art
music, the most common types of written notation are scores, which include
all the music parts of an ensemble piece, and parts, which are the music
notation for the individual performers or singers. In popular music, jazz,
and blues, the standard musical notation is the lead sheet, which notates
the melody, chords, lyrics (if it is a vocal piece), and structure of the
music. Nonetheless, scores and parts are also used in popular music and
jazz, particularly in large ensembles such as jazz "big bands."
In popular music, guitarists and electric bass players often read music
notated in tablature, which indicates the location of the notes to be played
on the instrument using a diagram of the guitar or bass fingerboard.
Tabulature was also used in the Baroque era to notate music for the lute, a
stringed, fretted instrument.
Notated music is produced as sheet music for the performers to read from. To
perform music from notation requires an understanding of both the musical
style and the performance practice that is associated with a piece of music
or genre.
Improvisation
Improvisation is the creation of spontaneous music.
Cognition
The field of music cognition involves the study of many aspects of music
including how it is processed by listeners. Deaf people can experience music
by feeling the vibrations in their body, a process which can be enhanced if
the individual holds a resonant, hollow object. A well-known deaf musician
is the composer Ludwig van Beethoven, who composed many famous works even
after he had completely lost his hearing. Recent examples of deaf musicians
include Evelyn Glennie, a highly acclaimed percussionist who has been deaf
since the age of twelve, and Chris Buck, a virtuoso violinist who has lost
his hearing.
Music is experienced by individuals in a range of social settings ranging
from being alone to attending a large concert. Musical performances take
different forms in different cultures and socioeconomic milieus. In Europe
and North America, there is often a divide between what types of music are
viewed as a "high culture" and "low culture." "High culture" types of music
typically include Western art music such as Baroque, Classical, Romantic,
and modern-era symphonies, concertos, and solo works, and are typically
heard in formal concerts in concert halls and churches, with the audience
sitting quietly in seats.
On the other hand, other types of music such as jazz, blues, soul, and
country are often performed in bars, nightclubs, and theatres, where the
audience may be able to drink, dance, and express themselves by cheering.
Until the later 20th century, the division between "high" and "low" musical
forms was widely accepted as a valid distinction that separated out better
quality, more advanced "art music" from the popular styles of music heard in
bars and dance halls.
However, in the 1980s and 1990s, musicologists studying this perceived
divide between "high" and "low" musical genres argued that this distinction
is not based on the musical value or quality of the different types of
music.Rather, they argued that this distinction was based
largely on the socioeconomic standing or social class of the performers or
audience of the different types of music.For example,
whereas the audience for Classical symphony concerts typically have
above-average incomes, the audience for a hip-hop concert in an inner-city
area may have below-average incomes. Even though the performers, audience,
or venue where non-"art" music is performed may have a lower socioeconomic
status, the music that is performed, such as blues, hip-hop, punk, funk, or
ska may be very complex and sophisticated.
When composers introduce styles of music which break with convention, there
can be a strong resistance from academic music experts and popular culture.
Late-period Beethoven string quartets, Stravinsky ballet scores, serialism,
bebop-era jazz, hip hop, punk rock, and electronica have all been considered
non-music by some critics when they were first introduced.Media and Technology
The music that composers make can be heard through several media; the most
traditional way is to hear it live, in the presence, or as one of the
musicians. Live music can also be broadcast over the radio, television or
the internet. Some musical styles focus on producing a sound for a
performance, while others focus on producing a recording which mixes
together sounds which were never played "live". Recording, even of styles
which are essentially live, often uses the ability to edit and splice to
produce recordings which are considered better than the actual performance.
As talking pictures emerged in the early 20th century, with their
prerecorded musical tracks, an increasing number of moviehouse orchestra
musicians found themselves out of work.[3] During the 1920s live musical
performances by orchestras, pianists, and theater organists were common at
first-run theaters[4] With the coming of the talking motion pictures, those
featured performances were largely eliminated. The American Federation of
Musicians took out newspaper advertisements protesting the replacement of
live musicians with mechanical playing devices. One 1929 ad that appeared in
the Pittsburgh Press features an image of a can labeled "Canned Music / Big
Noise Brand / Guaranteed to Produce No Intellectual or Emotional Reaction
Whatever" [5]
Since legislation introduced to help protect performers, composers,
publishers and producers, including the Audio Home Recording Act of 1992 in
the United States, and the 1979 revised Berne Convention for the Protection
of Literary and Artistic Works in the United Kingdom, recordings and live
performances have also become more accessible through computers, devices and
internet in a form that is commonly known as music-on-demand.
In many cultures, there is less distinction between performing and listening
to music, as virtually everyone is involved in some sort of musical
activity, often communal. In industrialised countries, listening to music
through a recorded form, such as sound recording or watching a music video,
became more common than experiencing live performance, roughly in the middle
of the 20th century.
Sometimes, live performances incorporate prerecorded sounds. For example, a
DJ uses disc records for scratching, and some 20th-century works have a solo
for an instrument or voice that is performed along with music that is
prerecorded onto a tape. Computers and many keyboards can be programmed to
produce and play MIDI music. Audiences can also become performers by
participating in Karaoke, an activity of Japanese origin which centres
around a device that plays voice-eliminated versions of well-known songs.
Most karaoke machines also have video screens that show lyrics to songs
being performed; performers can follow the lyrics as they sing over the
instrumental tracks.
Education
The incorporation of music training from preschool to postsecondary
education is common in North America and Europe, because involvement in
music is thought to teach basic skills such as concentration, counting,
listening, and cooperation while also promoting understanding of language,
improving the ability to recall information, and creating an environment
more conductive to learning in other areas. [6] In elementary schools,
children often learn to play instruments such as the recorder, sing in small
choirs, and learn about the history of Western art music. In secondary
schools students may have the opportunity to perform some type of musical
ensembles, such as choirs, marching bands, concert bands, jazz bands, or
orchestras, and in some school systems, music classes may be available. Some
students also take private music lessons with a teacher. Amateur musicians
typically take lessons to learn musical rudiments and beginner- to
intermediate-level musical techniques.
At the university level, students in most arts and humanities programs can
receive credit for taking music courses, which typically take the form of an
overview course on the history of music, or a music appreciation course that
focuses on listening to music and learning about different musical styles.
In addition, most North American and European universities have some type of
musical ensembles that non-music students are able to participate in, such
as choirs, marching bands, or orchestras. The study of Western art music is
increasingly common outside of North America and Europe, such as STSI in
Bali, or the Classical music programs that are available in Asian countries
such as South Korea, Japan, and China. At the same time, Western
universities and colleges are widening their curriculum to include music of
non-Western cultures, such as the music of Africa or Bali (e.g. Gamelan
music).
Academia
Many people also study about music in the field of musicology. The earliest
definitions of musicology defined three sub-disciplines: systematic
musicology, historical musicology, and comparative musicology. In
contemporary scholarship, one is more likely to encounter a division of the
discipline into music theory, music history, and ethnomusicology. Research
in musicology has often been enriched by cross-disciplinary work, for
example in the field of psychoacoustics. The study of music of non-western
cultures, and the cultural study of music, is called ethnomusicology.
Graduates of undergraduate music programs can go on to further study in
music graduate programs. Graduate degrees include the Master of Music, the
Master of Arts, the PhD (e.g., in musicology or music theory), and more
recently, the Doctor of Musical Arts, or DMA. The Master of Music degree,
which takes one to two years to complete, is typically awarded to students
studying the performance of an instrument, education, voice or composition.
The Master of Arts degree, which takes one to two years to complete and
often requires a thesis, is typically awarded to students studying
musicology, music history, or music theory. Undergraduate university degrees
in music, including the Bachelor of Music, the Bachelor of Music Education,
and the Bachelor of Arts (with a major in music) typically take three to
five years to complete. These degrees provide students with a grounding in
music theory and music history, and many students also study an instrument
or learn singing technique as part of their program.
The PhD, which is required for students who want to work as university
professors in musicology, music history, or music theory, takes three to
five years of study after the Master's degree, during which time the student
will complete advanced courses and undertake research for a dissertation.
The Doctor of Musical Arts (DMA) is a relatively new degree that was created
to provide a credential for professional performers or composers that want
to work as university professors in musical performance or composition. The
DMA takes three to five years after a Master's degree, and includes advanced
courses, projects, and performances. In Medieval times, the study of music
was one of the Quadrivium of the seven Liberal Arts and considered vital to
higher learning. Within the quantitative Quadrivium, music, or more
accurately harmonics, was the study of rational proportions.
Zoomusicology is the study of the music of non-human animals, or the musical
aspects of sounds produced by non-human animals. As George Herzog (1941)
asked, "do animals have music?" François-Bernard Mâche's Musique, mythe,
nature, ou les Dauphins d'Arion (1983), a study of "ornitho-musicology"
using a technique of Ruwet's Language, musique, poésie (1972) paradigmatic
segmentation analysis, shows that birdsongs are organised according to a
repetition-transformation principle. Jean-Jacques Nattiez (1990), argues
that "in the last analysis, it is a human being who decides what is and is
not musical, even when the sound is not of human origin. If we acknowledge
that sound is not organised and conceptualised (that is, made to form music)
merely by its producer, but by the mind that perceives it, then music is
uniquely human."
Music theory is the study of music, generally in a highly technical manner
outside of other disciplines. More broadly it refers to any study of music,
usually related in some form with compositional concerns, and may include
mathematics, physics, and anthropology. What is most commonly taught in
beginning music theory classes are guidelines to write in the style of the
common practice period, or tonal music. Theory, even that which studies
music of the common practice period, may take many other forms. Musical set
theory is the application of mathematical set theory to music, first applied
to atonal music. Speculative music theory, contrasted with analytic music
theory, is devoted to the analysis and synthesis of music materials, for
example tuning systems, generally as preparation for composition.
Ethnomusicology
In the West, much of the history of music that is taught deals with the
Western civilization's art music. The history of music in other cultures
("world music" or the field of "ethnomusicology") is also taught in Western
universities. This includes the documented classical traditions of Asian
countries outside the influence of Western Europe, as well as the folk or
indigenous music of various other cultures.
Popular styles of music varied widely from culture to culture, and from
period to period. Different cultures emphasised different instruments, or
techniques, or uses for music. Music has been used not only for
entertainment, for ceremonies, and for practical and artistic communication,
but also for propaganda in totalitarian countries.
There is a host of music classifications, many of which are caught up in the
argument over the definition of music. Among the largest of these is the
division between classical music (or "art" music), and popular music (or
commercial music - including rock and roll, country music, and pop music).
Some genres don't fit neatly into one of these "big two" classifications,
(such as folk music, world music, or jazz music).
As world cultures have come into greater contact, their indigenous musical
styles have often merged into new styles. For example, the United States
bluegrass style contains elements from Anglo-Irish, Scottish, Irish, German
and African instrumental and vocal traditions, which were able to fuse in
the United States' multi-ethnic society. Genres of music are determined as
much by tradition and presentation as by the actual music. While most
classical music is acoustic and meant to be performed by individuals or
groups, many works described as "classical" include samples or tape, or are
mechanical.[original research?] Some works, like Gershwin's Rhapsody in
Blue, are claimed by both jazz and classical music. Many current music
festivals celebrate a particular musical genre.
Indian music, for example, is one of the oldest and longest living types of
music, and is still widely heard and performed in South Asia, as well as
internationally (especially since the 1960s). Indian music has mainly 3
forms of Classical music, Hindustani, Carnatic, and Dhrupad styles. It has
also a large repertoire of styles, which involve only Percussion music such
as the Tala-vadya performances famous in South India.
Music Therapy
Robert Burton wrote in the 17th century in his work, The Anatomy of
Melancholy, that music and dance were critical in treating mental illness,
especially melancholia.[7] He said that "But to leave all declamatory
speeches in praise of divine music, I will confine myself to my proper
subject: besides that excellent power it hath to expel many other diseases,
it is a sovereign remedy against despair and melancholy, and will drive away
the devil himself." Burton noted that "...Canus, a Rhodian fiddler, in
Philostratus, when Apollonius was inquisitive to know what he could do with
his pipe, told him, "That he would make a melancholy man merry, and him that
was merry much merrier than before, a lover more enamoured, a religious man
more devout."[8][9][10]
In November 2006, Dr. Michael J. Crawford[11] and his colleagues also found
that music therapy helped schizophrenic patients.[12] In the Ottoman Empire,
mental illnesses were treated with music.
Sources
1. ^ The Music of India By Reginald MASSEY, Jamila MASSEY. Google Books
2. ^ Baroque Music by Elaine Thornburgh and Jack Logan, Ph. D.
3. ^ American Federation of Musicians/History "1927 – With the release of
the first 'talkie,' The Jazz Singer, orchestras in movie theaters were
displaced. The AFM had its first encounter with wholesale unemployment
brought about by technology. Within three years, 22,000 theater jobs for
orchestral musicians, pianists, and theater organists who accompanied silent
movies were lost, while only a few hundred jobs for musicians performing on
soundtracks were created by the new technology. While continuing to protest
the loss of jobs due to the use of 'canned music' with motion pictures, the
AFM set minimum wage scales for Vitaphone, Movietone and phonograph record
work. Because synchronising music with pictures for the movies was
particularly difficult, the AFM was able to set high prices for this work."
4. ^ Hubbard (1985), p. 429.
5. ^ Canned Music on Trial This is the case of Art vs. Mechanical Music in
theatres. The defendant stands accused in front of the American people of
attempted corruption of musical appreciation and discouragement of musical
education. Theatres in many cities are offering synchronised mechanical
music as a substitute for Real Music. If the theatre-going public accepts
this vitiation of its entertainment program a deplorable decline in the Art
of Music is inevitable. Musical authorities know that the soul of the Art is
lost in mechanisation. It cannot be otherwise because the quality of music
is dependent on the mood of the artist, upon the human contact, without
which the essence of intellectual stimulation and emotional rapture is lost.
http://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/dynaweb/adaccess/radio/1922-1929/@Generic__BookTextView/1469;nh=1?DwebQuery=canned+in+%3Cc01%3E#X
"Canned Music on Trial"] part of Duke University's Ad*Access project. The
text of the ad continues:
Is Music Worth Saving?
No great volume of evidence is required to answer this question. Music is a
well-nigh universally beloved art. From the beginning of history, men have
turned to musical expression to lighten the burdens of life, to make them
happier. Aborigines, lowest in the scale of savagery, chant their song to
tribal gods and play upon pipes and shark-skin drums. Musical development
has kept pace with good taste and ethics throughout the ages, and has
influenced the gentler nature of man more powerfully perhaps than any other
factor. Has it remained for the Great Age of Science to snub the Art by
setting up in its place a pale and feeble shadow of itself?
American Federation of Musicians (Comprising 140,000 musicians in the United
States and Canada), Joseph N. Weber, President. Broadway, New York City.
6. ^ Woodall and Ziembroski, 2002
7. ^ cf. The Anatomy of Melancholy, Robert Burton, subsection 3, on and
after line 3480, "Music a Remedy"
8. ^ Ismenias the Theban, Chiron the centaur, is said to have cured this and
many other diseases by music alone: as now they do those, saith Bodine, that
are troubled with St. Vitus's Bedlam dance. Project Gutenberg's The Anatomy
of Melancholy, by Democritus Junior
9. ^ "Humanities are the Hormones: A Tarantella Comes to Newfoundland. What
should we do about it?" by Dr. John Crellin, MUNMED, newsletter of the
Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1996.
10. ^ Aung, Steven K.H., Lee, Mathew H.M., "Music, Sounds, Medicine, and
Meditation: An Integrative Approach to the Healing Arts", Alternative &
Complementary Therapies, Oct 2004, Vol. 10, No. 5: 266-270.
11. ^ Dr. Michael J. Crawford page at Imperial College London, Faculty of
Medicine, Department of Psychological Medicine.
12. ^ Crawford, Mike J.; Talwar, Nakul, et al. (November 2006). "Music
therapy for in-patients with schizophrenia: Exploratory randomised
controlled trial". The British Journal of Psychiatry (2006) 189: 405-409.
Further Reading
* Harwood, Dane (1976). "Universals in Music: A Perspective from Cognitive
Psychology", Ethnomusicology 20, no. 3:521-33.
* Johnson, Julian (2002). Who Needs Classical Music?: Cultural Choice and
Musical Value. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514681-6.
* Kertz-Welzel, Alexandra. "Piano Improvisation Develops Musicianship."
Orff-Echo XXXVII No. 1 (2004): 11-14.
* Kertz-Welzel, Alexandra. "The Singing Muse: Three Centuries of Music
Education in Germany." Journal of Historical Research in Music Education
XXVI no. 1 (2004): 8-27.
* Kertz-Welzel, Alexandra. "Didaktik of Music: A German Concept and its
Comparison to American Music Pedagogy." International Journal of Music
Education (Practice) 22 No. 3 (2004): 277-286.
* Kertz-Welzel, Alexandra. "General Music Education in Germany Today: A Look
at How Popular Music is Engaging Students." General Music Today 18 no. 2
(Winter 2005): 14-16.
* Molino, Jean (1975). "Fait musical et sémiologue de la musique", Musique
en Jeu, no. 17:37-62.
* Nattiez, Jean-Jacques (1987). Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of
Music (Musicologie générale et sémiologue, 1987). Translated by Carolyn
Abbate (1979). ISBN 0-691-02714-5.
* Owen, Harold (2000). Music Theory Resource Book. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-511539-2.
* Woodall, Laura and Brenda Ziembroski, (2002). Literacy Through Music.
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